Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psychoanalysis, the most influential psychological theorist of 20th-century. Freud's theories, including the concept of the Oedipus complex, have had an enormous influence on art, literature, and social thinking. Freud's fundamental idea was that all humans are endowed with an unconscious in which potent sexual and aggressive drives, and defenses against them, struggle for supremacy. Freud once stated: "The only unnatural sexual behavior is none at all." It is often asserted that Freud "discovered" the unconscious mind. However, the idea is found in the work of many thinkers and authors from the times of Homer.

"The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind." (from The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900)

Sigmund Freud was born of Jewish parentage in Freiburg, Moravia, Austria-Hungary (now the Czech Republic), the first of seven children. His mother Amalia Nathansohn was twenty years younger than his father, the wool merchant Jakob Freud; Amalia was his third wife. The family moved in 1860 to Vienna, where discriminating laws against the Jews had been canceled during 1850s and 1860s. Freud studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician. Breuer had with some success treated patients by encouraging them to "talk out" their past under hypnosis. In 1895 they coauthored Studies in Hysteria. It was an account of the treatment of "Anna O.", a hysterical patient, whom Freud himself never treated.

From 1882 to 1886 Freud worked at the General Hospital, and experimented among others with cocaine, also using it himself. He went to Paris in 1885 to study under Jean Martin Charcot at the Salpetrière Hospital. There the hypnotic treatment of women, who suffered from a medical state called "hysteria", led Freud to take an interest in psychiatry. After returning to Vienna Freud married Martha Bernays; they had six children. In 1886 Freud opened his private practice. Their address from 1891 was Berggasse 19, where the family lived until 1938.

By 1896 Freud had found the key to his own system, naming it psychoanalysis. In it he had replaced hypnosis with "free association." In 1900 Freud published his first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams, which established the importance of psychoanalytical movement. One of Freud's most famous early failures happened in the same year. In October he began treating an 18-year-old woman, Ida Bauer, better known by the pseudonym Dora. After 11 weeks, she stopped treatment, leaving much of the analytic work undone.

In 1902 Freud was appointed Ausserordentlicher Professor, and in 1905 appeared Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. At the suggestion of a disciple, Freud founded in 1902 the Psychological Wednesday Society, later transformed into the Viennna Psychoanalytic Society. After the Third International Psychoanalytic Congress in Weimar in 1911, Freud met Lou Andreas-Salomé, the Russian intellectual, who had been beloved by Nietzsche, whom she rejected, and was the traveling companion and lover of the poet Rainer Maria Rilke. Andreas-Salomé was still in her fifties youthful-appearing, and when Freud first encountered her, he warned one of his younger followers that she was "a woman of dangerous intelligence" but that "all the tracks around her go into the Lion's den but none come out." For a brief period, Andreas-Salomé was Freud's closest woman pupil and she was allowed to attend regularly the internal Wednesday gatherings at Bergstrasse 19. "Frau Lou" was also close to Freud's daughter Anna (1895-1982). Andreas-Salomé never questioned Anna's adoration of her famous father. Later Anna Freud, who never married, became a major force in British psychology, spezializing in the application of psychoanalysis to children. Among her best known works is The Ego and the Mechanism of Defence (1936).

In 1909 Freud travelled with Carl Jung in the United States, lecturing and meeting among others American philosopher and psychologist William James (SEE UNDER his brother, writer Henry James). Jung's close collaboration with Freud lasted until 1913. Jung had become increasingly critical of Freud's exclusively sexual definition of libido and incest. The publication of Jung's Symbols of Transformation (1912) led to a final break.

"I always recognized Freud's greatness and genius, but he was extremely headstrong. He came out of nowhere and the world was hostile towards him. He had to be obstinate to gain acceptance. Had he not been obstinate, his theory would have remained unknown... Once he said to me:we have to turn the theory of the unconscious into a dogma, to make it immovable. Why a dogma, I replied, since sooner or later truth will have to win out? Freud explained: We need a dam against the black tide of mud of occultism." (from C.G. Jung Speaking, ed. by William McGuire, and R.F.C. Hull, 1978)

By the beginning of the 1920s, Freud's writing had given rise to several associates of psychoanalysis. In his own life he was nearly muted: a series of operations for mouth cancer, beginning in 1923, made him unable to perform in public. He published Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921), The Future of an Illusion (1927), and Civilization and Its Discontents (1929), all dealing with large cultural issues. In spite of the recognition of his work Freud was never awarded with the Nobel Prize, but in 1928 an attempt was made for his nomination. This was supported by Alfred Döblin, Jacob Wassermann, Bertrand Russell, A.S. Neill, Lytton Strachey, Julian Huxley, Knut Hamsun, Thomas Mann. Albert Einstein didn't join the campaign, although he had been in correspondence with Freud.

"Thomas Mann points out that Freud is deeply involved in the irrationalism of the beginning of the new century because of the nature of the material of his enquiry, the unconscious, passions, instincts and dreams. But Freud is really connected not only with this neo-romantic movement, in which the subterranean regions of the life of the mind are the central point of interest, but at the same time with the beginning and origins of the whole aspect of romantic thought which goes back to the pre-civilized and the pre-rational. There is still an abundant share of Rousseauism in the pleasure with which he describes the freedom of the uncivilized man of instinct." (Arnold Hauser in The Social History of Art, 1951)

After Hitler's seizure of power, psychoanalytic work came to an end in Germany, and Freud's books were burnt in Berlin. His views also were condemned in the USSR . At the request of the league of Nations, Freud collaborated with Albert Einstein in writing Why War? (1933) When Nazis invaded Austria, Freud was permitted to move to London after paying a large ransom. He died of throat cancer three weeks after the outbreak of WW II in 1939. His death on September 23, 1939 was eased by euthanasia - Freud asked his physician to give him a lethal dose of morphine. His last book, Moses and Monotheism (1939), was completed in England. In it Freud dismissed Jung's concept of a "collective unconscious" and offered instead his own idea of "archaic inheritance". According to Freud, Moses was an Egyptian, who gave to the Jews the religion of monotheism, and was murdered in the wilderness. "The founding of the Mohammedan religion seems to me to be an abbreviated repetition of the Jewish one," Freud wrote, but Islam "lacked the profundity which the Jewish religion resulted from the murder of its founder."

Freud's theories have been questioned by many scholars. The knowledge of brain's electrical behavior have brought new views in the interpretation of dreams. Freud, along with Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Albert Einstein (1879-1955), revolutionarized modern Western thinking. But when Marx's thoughts have become unpopular after the fall of the Soviet Union, psychoanalysis has not experiences similar decline. Like "dialectical materialism", psychoanalytic theories cannot be adequately tested or falsified.

One of the most passionate discussions of Freud's life and work arose in 1984. A young analyst-in-training, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, claimed in his provocative book Suppression of the Seduction Theory that many of Freud's patients were assaulted sexually in their childhoods by adults, but Freud did not analyze the genuineness of the abuse. Anthony Storr, a psychiatrist and the author of The Art of Psychotherapy and The Essential Jung, noted in his review of the book that "anyone who is at all familiar with Freud's writings will know that, in the early days of psychoanalysis, Freud considered hysterical symptoms to be the consequence of traumatic experiences, and these traumatic experiences were invariably sexual in nature." (New York Times, February 12, 1984) However, after self-analysis and discovering his 'Oedipus complex', based on fantasy, not on reality, he concluded that although assaults took place in childhood, it could not generally be considered the cause of hysteria or other neuroses.

Glossary: Castration anxiety: a boy's unconscious fear of losing his penis; Ego: the minds mechanism for keeping in touch with reality, it refers the conflict between id and superego; Freudian slip: a seemingly meaningless slip of the tongue that reveals an unconscious thought; Id: the part of mind from which primal needs and drives emerge; Oedipus complex: children in their phallic phase (ages three to six) form an erotic attachment to the parent of the opposite sex, and concomitant hatred of the parent of the same sex; Penis envy: girls try to deal with their "inferiority", they wish they had penis; Repression: the keeping of unacceptable ideas from consciousness - i.e. in the "unconscious"; Super-Ego: the self-criticizing part of the mind out of which the conscience develops

For further reading: Sigmund Freud: Life and Work by E. Jones (1953-57); The Ability to Mourn: Eros and Civilization by Herbert Marcuse (1955); Freud: The Mind of the Moralist by Phillip Rieff (1959); Freud and Philosophy by Paul Ricoeur (1970); Psychoanalysis and Feminism by Juliet Mitchell (1974); Disillusionment and the Social Origins of Psychoanalysis by Peter Homans (1989); Freud and the Problem of God by Hans Kung (1990); The Cambridge Companion to Freud, ed. by Jerome Neu (1991); Freud and His Followers by Paul Roazen (1992, paperback); The Case of Sigmund Freud: Medicine and Identity at the Fin De Siecle by Sander L. Gilman (1993); Femininities, Masculinities, Sexualities: Freud and Beyond by Nancy J. Chodorow (1994); Drawing the Dream of the Wolves: Homosexuality, Interpretation, and Freud's 'Wolf Man' by Whitney Davis (1995, paperback); A Final Accounting: Philosophical and Empirical Issues in Freudian Psychology by Edward Erwin (1995); Back to Freud's Texts: Making Silent Documents Speak by Ilse Grubrich-Simitis (1996); Freud and the Passions, ed. by John O'Neill (1996, paperback); Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression by Jacques Derrida (1996); Dispatches from the Freud Wars: Psychoanalysis and Its Passions by John Forrester (1997); The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson (1998, paperback); Freud: A Life for Our Time by Peter Gay (1998, paperback); Early Freud and Late Freud: Reading Anew Studies on Hysteria and Moses and Monotheism by Ilse Grubrich-Simitis (1998, paperback); Dr. Freud, a Life by Paul Ferris (1998); Freud: From Youthful Dream to Mid-Life Crisis by Peter M. Newton (1999); Analytic Freud: Philosophy and Psychoanalysis, ed. by Michael P. Levine (2000); Freud's 'Megalomania' by Adam Phillips (2000) - NOTE 1: Freud's favorite writers in 1907: Gottfried Keller, Conrad Fardinand Meyer, Anatole France, Émile Zola, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Macaulay, Dimitri Merezkovski, Eduard Douwes Dekker (Multatuli), Theodor Gomperz, Mark Twain. Freud also enjoyed Agatha Christie's and Dorothy Sayers's mystery novels in later years. Other favorites: Goethe, Schiller, Heinrich Heine, Wilhelm Busch, Arthur Schnitzler, Stefan Zweig. - Freud's theories were also largely mocked in literature. Hungarian playwright Ferenc Molnar presented an idea, where a young man is happily married with his mother, but finds out that she is not really his mother and commits suicide. James Thurber and E.B. White published Is Sex Necessary? or, Why You Feel the Way You Do (1929), where they caricaturized psychoanalytical terms. - NOTE 2: Hogarth Press, Freud's publisher in England, was owned by Leonard and Virginia Woolf. - FOR FURTHER INFORMATION: Sigmund Freud - The Father of Psychoanalysis

Selected works:

• ZUR AUFFASSUNG DER APHASIEN, 1891
• ÜBER DEN PSYCHISCHEN MECHANISMUS HYSTERISCHER PHÄNOMENE, 1893 (with Josef Bauer)
• ENTWURF EINER PSYCHOLOGIE, 1895 (with Josef Bauer)
• STUDIEN ÜBER HYSTERIA, 1895 - Studies in Hysteria (tr. by A. A. Brill) / Studies on Hysteria (tr. by James Strachey) / Studies in Hysteria (translated by Nicola Luckhurst)
• INFANTILE CEREBRALLÄHMUNG, 1897 - Infantile Cerebral Paralysis (translated by Lester A. Russin)
• DIE TRAUMDEUTUNG, 1900 - The Interpretation of Dreams (tr. Abraham A. Brill, 1913; James Strachey, 1955) - Unien tulkinta (suom. Erkki Puranen)
• ÜBER DEN TRAUM, 1901 - On Dreams (tr. by M.D. Eder)
• ZUR PSYCHOPATHOLOGIE DES ALLTAGSLEBENS, 1901 - The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (tr. by James Strachey) - Arkielämämme psykopatologiaa: unohtamisesta, virhesanonnoista, virheteoista, taikauskosta ja erehdyksistä (suom. Martti Takala ja Marjatta Santala)
• DREI ABHANDLUNGEN ZUR SEXUAL THEORIA, 1905 - Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory (tr. Abraham A. Brill, 1910) / Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (tr. James Strachey, 1949)
• DER WITZ UND SEINE BEZIEHUNG ZUM UNBEWUSSTEN, 1905 - Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (translated and edited by James Strachey) - Vitsi ja sen yhteys piilotajuntaan (suom. Mirja Rutanen)
• BRUCHSTÜCK EINER HYSTERIE-ANALYSE, 1905 - 'Dora: An Analysis of a Case of Hysteria', in The Standard Edition of the The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume VII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Erään hystreria-analyysin katkelma', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006)
• MEINE ANSICHTEN ÜBER DIE ROLLE DER SEXUALITÄT IN DER ÄTIOLOGIE DER NEUROSEN, 1906 - 'Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume X (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - Seksuaaliteoria (suom. Erkki Puranen)
• DER WAHN UND DIE TRÄUME IN W. JENSENS "GRADIVA", 1907 - Delusion & Dream: An Interpretation in the Light of Psychoanalysis of Gradiva, a Novel, by Wilhelm Jensen (translated by Helen M. Downey) / Delusion of Dream in Wilhelm Jensen's "Gradiva" - 'Harhakuvitelmia ja unia W. Jensenin Gradivassa', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• DIE "KULTURELLE" SEXUALMORAL UND DIE MODERNE NERVOSITÄT, 1908 - ''Civilized' Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume IX (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974)
• ANALYSE DER PHOBIE EINES FÜNFJÄHRIGEN KNABEN, 1909 - 'Little Hans', in The Standard Edition of the The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume X (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Viisivuotiaan pojan fobian analyysi', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006) / Viisivuotiaan pojan fobian analyysi (suom. Riitta Pentti)
• ÜBER PSYCHOANALYSE, 1910 - Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (translated and edited by James Strachey)
• EINE KINDHEITSERINNERUNG DES LEONARDO DA VINCI, 1910 - Leonardo da Vinci: Psychosexual Study of an Infantile Reminiscence (translated by A. A. Brill) / Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood (translated by Alan Tyson) - 'Leonardo da Vincin lapsuudenmuisto', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• PSYCHOANALYTISCHE BEMERKUNGEN ÜBER EINEN AUTOBIOGRAPHISCH BESCHRIEBENEN FALL VON PARANOIA (DEMENTIA PARANOIES), 1911 - The Schreber Case (translated by Andrew Webber) - 'Psykoanalyyttisia huomioita omaelämäkerrallisesti kuvatusta paranoiatapauksesta (dementia paranoides)', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006)
• TOTEM UND TABU, 1913 - Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics (tr. Abraham A. Brill, 1918) / Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics (tr. James Strachey, 1950) - Toteemi ja tabu (suom. Mirja Rutanen)
• DAS MOTIV DER KÄSTCHENWAHL, 1913 - 'The Theme of the Three Caskets', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Lippaanvalinnan teema', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• ZUR GESCHICHTE DER PSYCHOANALYTISCHEN BEWEGUNG, 1914 - On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement (translated by Joan Riviere; revised and edited by James Strachey)
• DER MOSES DES MICHELANGELO, 1914 - 'The Moses of Michelangelo', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Michelangelon Mooses', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• ZUR EINFÜHRUNG DES NARZISSMUS, 1914 - 'On Narcissism', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIV (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - Johdatus narsismiin ja muita esseitä (suom. Mirja Rutanen)
• ZEITGEMÄSSES ÜBER KRIEG UND TOD, 1915 - Reflections on War and on Death (translation by A. A. Brill and Alfred B. Kuttner, 1918)
• ÜBERSICHT DER ÜBERTRAGUNGSNEUROSEN, 1915 / 1985 - A Phylogenetic Fantasy: Overview of the Transference Neuroses (tr. by Axel Hoffer and Peter T. Hoffer)
• TRAUER UND MELANCHOLIE, 1916 - 'Mourning and Melancholia', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIV (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - Murhe ja melankolia sekä muita kirjoituksia (suom. Markus Lång)
• VORLESUNGEN ZUR EINFÜHRUNG IN DIE PSYCHOANALYSE, 1916-17 - A General Introduction to the Psychoanalysis (tr. Joan Riviere, 1920) / Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (tr. James Strachey, 1963) / The Complete Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (tr. and ed. by James Strachey) - Johdatus psykoanalyysiin (suom. Erkki Puranen)
• EINE KINDHEITSERINNERUNG AUS DICHTUNG UND WARHEIT, 1917 - 'A Childhood Recollection from Dichtung und Wahrheit', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XVII - 'Lapsuudenmuisto teoksesta Tarua ja totta', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• JENSEITS DES LUSTPRINZIPS, 1920 - Beyond the Pleasure Principle (tr. C.J.M. Hubback, 1922; James Strachey, 1950) - Johdatus narsismiin ja muita esseitä (suom. Mirja Rutanen)
• ÜBER DIE PSYCHOGENESE EINES FALLES VON WEIBLICHER HOMOSEXUALITÄT, 1920 - 'The Psychogenesis of a Case of Homosexuality in a Woman', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XVIII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Erään naisen homoseksuaalisuuden psykogeneesistä', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006)
• MASSENPSYCHOLOGIE UND ICH-ANALYSE, 1921 - Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (tr. by James Strachey)
• PSYCHOANALYSE UND TELEPATHIE, 1921 - Psychoanalysis and Telepathy (tr. George Devereux) / 'Psycho-Analysis and Telepathy', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XVIII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974)
• DAS ICH UND DAS ES, 1923 - The Ego and the Id (translation by Joan Riviere) - Johdatus narsismiin ja muita esseitä (suom. Mirja Rutanen)
• AUD DER GESCHICHTE EINER INFANTILEN NEUROSE, 1924 - The Wolf-Man. With The Case of the Wolf-Man (ed. by Muriel Gardiner) / The Case of the Wolf-Man (From the History of an Infantile Neurosis, with an introduction by Richard Wollheim) / The "Wolfman" and Other Cases (translated by Louise Adey Huish) - 'Erään lapsuudenneuroosin kehitys', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006)
• SELBSTDARSTELLUNG, 1925 - An Autobiographical Study (introduction by Peter Gay) / Autobiography (tr. by James Strachey) - Omaelämäkerrallinen tutkielma (suom. Pulmu ja Tapio Nousiainen)
• HEMMUNG, SYMPTOM UND ANGST, 1926 - The Problem of Anxiety (translated by Henry Alden Bunker) / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety (tr. by Alix Strachey) / The "Rat Man", in Three Case Histories (tr. 1963) - 'Huomioita eräästä pakkoneuroositapauksesta', teoksessa Tapauskertomukset (suom. Seppo Hyrkäs, 2006)
• DIE FRAGE DER LAIENANALYSE, 1926 - The Problem of Lay-Analyses (introduction by Dr. S. Ferenczi, tr. 1927) / The Question of Lay Analysis (tr. by Nancy Proctor-Gregg)
• DIE ZUKUNFT EINER ILLUSION, 1927 - The Future of an Illusion (tr. W.D. Robson-Scott, 1928; James Strachey, 1962)
DOSTOJEWSKI UND DIE VATERTÖTUNG, 1928 - 'Dostoevsky and Parricide', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXI (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974) - 'Dostojevski ja isänmurha', teoksessa Uni ja isänmurha: kuusi esseetä taiteesta (suom. Mirja Rutanen, 1995)
• DAS UNBEHAGEN IN DER KULTUR, 1929 - Civilization and Its Discontents (tr. Joan Riviere, 1930; James Strachey, 1967) - Ahdistava kulttuurimme (suom. Erkki Puranen)
• NEUE FOLGE DER VORLESUNGEN ZUR EINFÜHRUNG IN DIE PSYCHOANALYSE, 1933 - New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (tr. W.J.H. Sprott, 1933; James Strachey, 1964)
• WARUM KRIEG?, 1933 (with Albert Einstein) - Why War?: The Correspondence Between Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud (tr. by Fritz and Anna Moellenhoff) - Miksi sotaa?: Kirjeenvaihto vuodelta 1932 (suom. Maija Pellikka)
• DIE ENDLICHE UND DIE UNENDLICHE ANALYSE, 1937 - 'Analysis Terminable and Interminable', in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXIII (ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud, 1953-1974)
• DER MAN MOSES UND DIE MONOTHEISTISCHE RELIGION, 1939 - Moses and Monotheism (tr. Katherine Jones, 1939; James Strachey, 1974)
• GESAMMELTE WERKE, 1940-68 (ed. by Anna Freud, Edward Bibring, Willi Hoffler, Ernst Kris, Otto Isakower, Marie Bonaparte)
• The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 1953-1974 (24 vols., ed. by James Strachey, Anna Freud)
• On Creativity and the Unconscious; Papers on the Psychology of Art, Literature, Love, Religion, 1958 (selected, with introd. and annotations, by Benjamin Nelson)
• BRIEFE 1873-1939, 1960 (ed. by Ernst and Lucie Freud) - Letters of Sigmund Freud (tr. Tania and James Stern)
• FREUD-PFISTER: BRIEFE, 1909-1939, 1963 (ed. by Ernst L.Freud and Heinrich Meng) - The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister (tr. Eric Mosbacher)
• REUD-ABRAHAM: BRIEFE 1907-1926, 1965 (ed. by Hilda Abraham and Enst L. Freud) - The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham, 1907-1926 (tr. Bernard Marsh and Hilda Abraham)
• FREUD-SALOMÉ: BRIEFWECHSEL, 1966 (ed. by Ernst Pfeiffer) - Letters (tr. by Elaine and William Robson-Scott)
• FREUD-ZWEIG: BRIEFWECHSEL, 1968 (ed. by Ernst. L. Freud) - The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig (tr. by Elaine and William Robson-Scott)
• STUDIENAUSGABE, 1969-1989 (10 vols., ed. by Alexander Mitscherlich, Angela Richards, and James Strachey)
• FREUD-JUNG: BRIEFWECHSEL, 1974 - The Freud / Jung Letters (ed. by William Mc Guire and Wolfgang Sauerländer)
• Cocaine Papers, 1974 (edited and with an introd. by Robert Byck)
• FREUD-FLIESS: BRIEFE AN WILHELM FLIESS 1887-1904, 1986 (ed. by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, Michael Schröter, and Gerhard Fichtner) - The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887-1904 (tr. Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson)